Perspectives of Regulation of Complex Financial Institutes Essay

Perspectives of Regulation of Complex Financial Institutes - Essay ExampleGeneral complaints about a lack of restrictive aggressiveness ignore the realities of actually bringing enforcement actions in a tough environment. Regulatory enforcement in the United States operates surprisingly well given the difficulties of this operating environment, and critics curb not presented credible alternatives to the present system. A second perspective is that major financial institutions escape meaningful restrictive constraints because their power and influence overwhelm regulators and because individuals from regulatory institutions give too much deference to major financial institutions and their key executives and staff. This perspective suggests that financial regulation in the United States is broken largely because of this semipolitical dynamic and needs fundamental reform. This paper depart examine and look into how regulators and firms deal with each another(prenominal), how inter dependent they are on each other and the number of such interdependency. What kind of benefits and liabilities develop due to their strong ties. Financial institutes will be used as the premise of all discussion. Special attention will be given to potential benefits and risks of such cohesive regulatory networks. Regular dealings between regulators and financial institute beyond the regular rule do boost up co-operation. In subject transparency takes a toll. Information disparities also strengthen regulatory cultures and bring down the threshold of external pressure need to effect changes within firms. The conditions that bring this benefit impede flow of information and genuine criticism from outsider. As a result performance standards dip and various other problems crop up. The paper looks into various examples of such fraudulent activities and also the circumstances in which these tensions are more likely to manage without damage from these problems. Strong ties that instigate cooperation within insiders have a huge impact on the flow of information. Information disparity arises and outsiders are asked to stop criticism. A lot of problems shape up as a result. A very prominent example in this case would be the SEC, NASD and NYSE when they acted against conflicts of interests in investing banking and mutual funds, immediately after outsiders. In 2003, at a cost 1.4 billion dollars, regulator prosecutors and large securities firms settled charges. The firms had encouraged investment analysts to mask and exaggerate corporations investment value while misleading investors in order to win the corporations investment banking business. For many years, this was floating around as a underground in the industry while the press and various congressional hearings had focused on it. While the participants were aware of the ethical implications of such a business, they eventually came to monetary value with it and started living with it as if it was a normal part of the business. The Lehman Brothers came to the rescue and appealed for new synergy by announcing a new model for dealing between analysts and investment banking. This was widely featureed new paradigm for synergy and stated that The analyst is THE key driver of the firm relationship with its corporate client base. Analysts need to accept responsibility and use it to expand the franchise and DRIVE PROFITABILITY

Economics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Economics - Term Paper ExampleMy point byout the paper is what I had emphasized at the beginning of the previous paragraph. The contention here is that the world needs trade more than anything else and hence it would be prudent on the part of the governments of the world not to jettison free trade and globalization.I discuss the reasons for the current stinting slowdown and the efforts of the government in containing the crisis and providing relief to the beleaguered sectors of the economy. I make the point that the current administration is taking steps to recompense the economy, though the effects of those steps may not be felt in the short term. I make the case for international trade, albeit with a varied focus by learning from the mistakes of the past. The indebtedness of the US economy vis--vis the Chinese economy is discussed along with some suggestions to redress the balance.The US economy has been going through a period of turbulence for the last few years. The economic downturn that began in 2007 and is continuing to this day is a manifestation of the excessive credit policies and bounteous lending practices coupled with poor regulatory oversight by the authorities. The combination of these factors has ensured that the credit bubble when it burst did really ca lend oneself the entire global economic system to go into a severe contraction.What makes this crisis different from the periodic cyclical downturns one witnesses during alternating periods of boom and bust is that this crisis has been caused by borrowing and lending practices that were super questionable and on top of that excessive leveraging of the financial sector meant that the sectors contribution. As Kevin Philips (2009) notes, The principal wave of credit card use for debt consolidation and consumption crested in 2005, but industry growth had been enormous. Over the period from 1990 to 2003, the number

Personality & Attitudes on Revenge in the General Population of Scotland Essay Example for Free

Personality Attitudes on Revenge in the General Population of Scotland EssayFantasies vary from person to person and are dependent on psychological condition. In a clinical population fantasies tend to last longer than in non-clinical populations. Although e very(prenominal)placeall each conjuration has been reported to last relatively abruptly periods of time, the frequency of which they occur is usually the chemical element that determines whether they are of concern or non (Gellerman and Suddath, 2005). There seems to be a limited quantity of research lendable on the oecumenic understanding of this topic however the lit that does exist appears to focus on three busy areas, sustaining fantasies as a means of cope with painful and nerve-wracking situations in the widely distributed population but particularly in the clinical population (Zelin, Bernstein, Heijn, Jampel, Myerson, Adler, Buie Rizzuto, 1983 Harder Zelin, 1984 Greenwald Harder, 1994 Greenwald Harder, 1995 Greenwald and Harder, 1997) in-your-face fantasies for pleasure or satis accompanimention in the general population but more often than not habitually involuntary for the clinical population and generally idle, sexual and sadistic in temper (Gellerman Suddath, 2005 Egan Campbell, 2009 Selby, Anestis Joiner (2007), and finally, revenge fantasies concerning those who ease up experienced trauma (Mardi Harowitz, 2007). In search of material for this review surprise has it that homicidal fantasies on the whole is the one of which foc customs on a more simple view of its apparent natural occurrence in natural surroundings of everyday life, and highlights the evolving acceptance that many normal law stay citizens can and do have fantasies.Sustaining FantasyFrom a study conducted by Zelin et al (1983) the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire (SFQ) was developed to measure sustaining functions in psychiatric inpatients in uniformity with non-patients. This questionnaire was constructed specialisedally to measure fantasies of remainder, withdrawal, restitution, crucifixion, God, closeness, spot and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics. The questionnaire was then utilised to determine that psychiatric inpatients scored higher than non-patients on fantasies of death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God and closeness but fantasies of advocate and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics did not differentiate amongst groups. Thus, suggesting that the questionnaire was able to differentiate the groups by fantasy factors such as death, withdrawal, restitution, suffering, God and closeness and highlighted fellowships of power and revenge, admiration of self, competition and aesthetics with an independent measure of psychology.It is said that experiencing Sustaining Fantasies is a familiar, tenacious and repetitive conscious fantasy adopted to help cope with feelings of a painful and stressful situation. Accordi ng to Zelin et al (1983) the sustaining fantasy is a concept based on the observation that at times of extreme negative worked up states, caused by anger or narcissistic grievance, people often resort to this as a means of re-creating a more ideal situation than that of which stimulate the painful experience, fabricating a understanding of satisfaction, restoring self-esteem and emotional equilibrium, and decreasing frustration. Ultimately, the sustaining fantasy is based on the assumption that such fantasies signify and demonstration the basic mental synthesis and processes that have evolved in the course of efforts to adapt to painful situations. We are cueed by Zelin et al (1983) that this fantasy is of a specific type called only into play when suffering increasing levels of stress, and should not be confused by those fantasies used as a disguised endeavour of pleasure or solutions to relatively un-stressful problems, such studies entrust be discussed later in the review.On e year on, Harder Zelin (1984) fur thered the study of Zelin et al (1983) accepting that the sustaining fantasy questionnaire was developed in the first place with psychiatric inpatients, but recognising also, the probable for its use in testing correlates among a more general sample. Assuming that everyone uses sustaining fantasies to aid or support themselves through highly stressful periods in life and presuming the richness of this factor in the capability to manage adaptively quite than maladaptively, Harder Zelin (1984) extended interests and investigations into the constitution functioning in the general population as well as with pathologic persons.They did this by examining the relationship amidst the 10 types of sustaining fantasies reported by Zelin et al (1983) and two dimensions of self-concept self-derogation and stability of self-concept, suspecting that the type of sustaining fantasy that the person characteristically brings into play depart be consistent with and in support of their self-concept, an of import relation with psychological-social adjustment and even a potential determinant of psychological-social adjustment. Successfully, the results demonstrated that the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire was reliable not only to differentiate between groups of psychiatric inpatients from normal controls, as Zelin et al (1983) demonstrated, but also to distinguish the group of college students used in this study.Just over a decade later Greenwald Harder (1994) followed on from Zelin et al (1983), attempting to examine the expected associations between psychological medicine, al just about replicating exactly, apart from their use of a student population primarily from a middle-class backgrounds. In addition, Greenwald Harder (1994) questioned if the sustaining fantasy scales associated with weaker functioning, reflects a more general pathology factor as proposed in the data of Zelin et al (1983) or, whether each reflects a particular maladaptive style that is signified by an exceptional construction of associations with the MMPI clinical scales. Further support and reliability of Zelin et al (1983) is positionened in Greenwald Harders (1994) findings that power/revenge, death/illness, withdrawal/protection and suffering are all related world-shakingly to two of the MMPI measures of overall psychiatry, therefore four of the six fantasy types that imply psychopathology in the inpatients (Zelin et al, 1983) were too the indicators of pathology in the study using the middle-class students.Considering all of the previously mentioned studies (Zelin et al, 1983 Harder Zelin, 1984 Greenwald Harder, 1994) it seems mediocre to say that ample evidence has been gathered to show that certain(prenominal) types of sustaining fantasy ideas, characteristically used to comfort the self when experiencing feelings of hurt and stress, are associated with indications of psychopathological adjustment. The aim for Greenwald H arder (1995) was then to examine to what extent there are pairs between them and the degree to which such study ideas may well tailor out psychopathology. With reference to past research on daydreaming, where Singer Antrobus (1972) have suggested that particular collections of imaginativeness contentedness appear to propose less favourable styles, there seems to be similarities with the findings of Zelin et al (1983), although they did emphasise the difference between other fantasies such as daydreams and remind us not to confuse them.Contrary to this emphasis and that of Zelin et al (1983), clinical impressions have proposed that in more ways than one, the overall content of these two types of fantasies is rather parallel. As a result of this proposal, Greenwald Harder (1995) investigated whether sustaining fantasies generally show a strong similarity to the typical daydreams preferred by an individual, or whether there really is a movement from the content of ordinary daydr eams to the familiar self-comforting ones that provide support during feelings of pain and stress. To do this they compared the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire and the numerous Imaginal Process Inventory (IPI) (Singer Antrobus, 1972) scales for correspondence in content and in their relationships to measures of psychopathology, and a great deal of consistency was discovered even when partialling for social desirability. It was cerebrate that there was in fact considerable overlap in the content and of correspondence between both, sustaining fantasy and daydreams, and furthermore, it was highlighted that three particular IPI scales were observed to give significant indications of psychopathology fear reaction, bizarre and hostile.Despite the delight in these findings Greenwald Harder (1995) speculated the possibility that rather than the findings cosmos a result of specific content they may be the result of a broad level of association between the two scales. In pursuit of this speculation further analysis detected the average degree of correlation between SFQ and IPI characteristics in comparison to the level of association displayed by those relationships they predicted, finding that although there was no significance, there was a trend toward significance. Thus, suggesting that a general commonality between the SFQ and the IPI may have been a factor in contributing to the extent of their achievement in predictions for the study.On this note one should be reminded that for the get of reliability and validity, considering an underlying weakness alongside the success is vital for future study in terms of recognising the possibility for individuals to very well fantasize and daydream simultaneously in ordinary and/or stressful situations. It is now becoming apparent that sustaining fantasies are perhaps not quite as specific from other fantasies in particular situations such as move with stressful matters, as was first thought, or, that if they are, the y do not always emerge completely alone. Based on the results of this study Greenwald Harder (1995) propose the question of whether it would be well(p) to use the findings of their study, subsequent past research, to investigate clinical manipulation of the content and/or frequency of fantasy having therapeutic effects, bearing in mind the effrontery definition of sustaining fantasy in Zelin et al (1983) at the beginnings of this extensive research.To address the proposed questions that emerged from Greenwald Harder (1995) they conducted another study in 1997 replicating the previously discussed studies and replicating reported relationships between coping demeanours and psychopathology however, this time they utilised measurement instruments that were developed by different investigators, presented different rejoinder formats, and were not developed to measure the same content areas as before. They assessed whether consistent relationships exist between the content of self-re ported coping behaviours, sustaining fantasies, and ordinary daydreams and in addition attempted to identify coping behaviours associated with psychopathology, exploring any connections between coping behaviours, fantasies, and daydreams correlated with pathology.Pearson correlations indicated similar content between coping behaviours and the two types of fantasy and significant inter-correlations were found between sustaining fantasies, daydreams, and coping behaviours that, separately, were found to be significantly associated with psychopathology. In the process of this investigation, and with influencing thoughts created by the previous workings, Greenwald and Harder (1997) took into consideration the likelihood to expect there would be a consistency between the region of fantasy and behaviour, and that individuals would report thoughts and action in parallel ways but then again, consider also that it is also probable to anticipate that fantasies could serve as a substitute for action, and that a report of specific fantasy content might be inversely associated with behaviour that contains similar content.Growing in strength, again the results of Greenwald Harder (1997) were successful in that there is a significant association with regard to the content among self-reported daydreams, sustaining fantasies, and coping behaviours, even after controlling for social desirability. These results are found to be more influential due to the fact that they were obtained with assessment instruments that were developed by different investigators, used different reaction formats, and were not developed to measure the same content areas.Therefore, this information suggest that, spell there may be some instances of fantasies and behaviours that relate inversely to each other, fantasies usually are consistent with behavioural coping styles. These findings then highlight that there is a complex of daydreams, fantasies, and behavioural responses that could be used to char acterize individuals. Furthermore, to generalize the findings of this study it was recommended that future studies should be conducted with other subject populations that take into account age, culture, socioeconomic status and residence environment (Greenwald Harder, 1997), however, it seems appropriate to mention that perhaps at this point it is a good time to look at how the sustaining fantasy political orientation has branched out to embrace other influencing factors.Aggressive FantasiesEgan Campbell (2009) expanded research on sustaining fantasies almost taking it to a new level by selecting a diverse population, as recommended by Greenwald Harder (1997), but more importantly taking into account other domains that showed potential to reveal relationships from another angle. Such were, sensational topics, general personality traits, and self-reported physical aggression. They found relationships between sensational interests and physical aggression, regardless of gender. Per sonality and the application of negative sustaining fantasies significantly forecast physical aggression.When the SFQ was reduced to three higher order factors substantiative, negative, and narcissistic sustaining fantasies, correlations were found between neuroticism (N) and both incontrovertible and negative sustaining fantasies, although the association was stronger for negative fantasies. There were small associations between positive sustaining fantasies and indirect non-physical hostility although these relations were humble, and openness (O) was a stronger predictor. Narcissistic sustaining fantasies related to low levels of agreeableness (A), replicating associations between low A and narcissism generally. Ultimately proposing that aggressive and hostile persons are more stimulated by violent stimuli and that isolation is a further risk-increasing factor for aggressive interests.Following on from this conclusion of risk-increasing factors, caution was directed back a few years in literature to a study conducted by Gellerman Suddath (2005). They discussed risk-increasing factors in relation to questioning at what point would a health professional perhaps become concerned with a persons fantasy enough for it to become their affair to forewarn or protect others from potential dangerousness, or even attempt to protect the person from them self. In the health profession an evaluation of dangerousness includes not only asking close violent fantasies but also asking about physical and sexual content (Gellerman Suddath, 2005).Gellerman and Suddath (2005) looked at the conditions in which the disclosure of violent fantasies to a mental health professional may generate cause for concern and a duty to warn or protect other citizens. Reviewing legal cases in which violent fantasies were considered in the context of touchstone potential dangerousness and the literature available on homicidal and sexually violent fantasies in both non-incarcerated and crimin al populations was also examined. It was desistd that no dependable predictive relationship between violent fantasies and wickedly hazardous behaviour was reported in the available literature and suggestions of issues that mental health professionals may think about when gauging whether a particular violent fantasy is a sign for concern requiring rise to a duty in protecting others.At last, this paper is very interesting in that it is greatly unbiased and clearly discusses both the reproachful aspects of fantasy as well as the innocent or un-harmful aspects, thus presentation the importance of distinguishing between the two possibilities, which must be said, is something that is missing in the papers previously reviewed. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) explained in detail the definition of violent fantasy for the purport of their paper which must be credited as again, not many papers in this field have done so. They expressed their perception of violent fantasy as a thought in wh ich an individual imagines physically harming a fellow human being in some way. They explain that the content of individual fantasies may vary from anything such as murder, sexual assault, or inappropriate sexual activity.It is emphasised that fantasy must be distinguished from an intention, in that the imaginary craze is not instantaneously designed to guide or prepare for action. On the other hand, it is said that any expression of intention to harm another person is when we should have cause for concern as this is without doubt communicating a threat rather than a fantasy. Gellerman and Suddath (2005) noted two important points in terms of distinguishing between fantasy being harmless or harmful, firstly, while not instantaneously aimed at guiding action, fantasy has been illustrated as servicing a number of clinical functions, including control and relief of anxiety and substitution for action therefore harmless to others and at the same time very recyclable to the fantasizer , secondly, from a harmful perspective fantasy may also be preparation for action and it is from this perspective that concern should be heightened in the evaluation of dangerousness and the duty to protect.Gellerman and Suddath (2005) go on to give balanced examples of both harmless and harmful fantasies. In their comparisons of both sides and in both populations, un-incarcerated and criminal, together with their overall review of the literature they used, they suggest that as fantasies of murder were fairly common in general Western European and American populations, and a range of fantasies of aggression and sexual violence were less common, but were by no means rare, people should bear in mind that this high prevalence of homicidal and sexually aggressive fantasy can only make us question then, to what extent can such fantasies be considered deviant.In addition it should be highlighted that Gellerman and Suddath (2005) found that existing studies have evidently established that many more individuals have homicidal and sexually violent fantasies than act on them. The relationship between violent fantasy and behaviour in these studies was correlative at best, and no suggestions were given in attempt to identifying the minority of individuals with violent fantasies who may be at risk of acting them out. Altogether, it was concluded that predictors better than fantasies alone are the eminence of the fantasies, the concern with them, and the level of preparation and detail, and the history of any past violent behaviours all need to be looked at collectively (Gellerman Suddath, 2005).Another study of interest where aggressive fantasies seek personal pleasure but in a paradoxical way is that of Selby, Anestis Joiner (2007). They reported that dangerous individuals regularly report the reoccurrence of fantasy where they can visualise their death by suicide very clearly in their imagination, almost like watching it on TV. Selby et al (2007) found that many unrem ittingly suicidal individuals are thought to have a romantic affection for death and as a result, connect themselves in vivid fantasies or daydreams about the process and the after-effects. This somewhat idealistic thought process even appears to be a pleasant motion for them.In hopelessness of escape from torment and pain (Baumeister, 1990), it seems that the act of suicide is the answer and therefore thinking about the liberation that death would present, perhaps enables suicidal individuals to experience positive affects similar to that of non-suicidal individuals daydreaming or fantasizing about future life events such as holidays (Selby et al, 2007). This daydreaming may actually be a form of emotion dysregulation, in suicidal individuals, one that would appear, perhaps paradoxically, to increase positive affect yet may increase later risk for serious suicidal behaviour. This psychological state was also considered by Zelin et al (1983).Revenge FantasiesSuicidal behaviour, jus t like the fantasies they provoke, vary in content and from person to person however for the purpose of this review it should be mentioned that revenge fantasies among many other things, can often be the cause for suicidal behaviour (Mardi Harowitz, 2007). In one way the antecedent behind the fantasies are similar per se feelings of rage shame guilt etc., but in another way very different often discarded and uncontrollable. Revenge fantasies are described as being beyond normal bitter thoughts and sometimes dangerous. The study conducted by Mardi Harowitz (2007) was an attempt to seek solutions to a sibylline case demonstrating a problem existing in clinical practice.The method behind this is for the authors to review current data on prevalence, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment and ultimately conclude treatment recommendations. Again it is brought to attention that the quantity of literature addressing fantasy is limited, Mardi Harowitz (2007) pointed out at the begin ning of their paper that revenge fantasies have been discussed in literature, however not adequately addressed, a problem common for most papers in this review. Like all other fantasies per se, revenge fantasies can provide a sense of reinstated purpose and regain of control in an otherwise traumatized life and purely for this purpose it is imperative to assist traumatized individuals in recognizing this.Mardi Harowitz (2007) split the scenario up into sections in rate to how step by step the scenario would be assessed and addressed in a clinical preparednessting. All important techniques and procedures were discussed such as, the importance of techniques in psychotherapy being put in place with the much needed interpretations and reappraisals and with careful differentiation of rational and irrational beliefs. It was explained that it is then, that the function of revenge fantasies as giving an illusion of strength can be interpreted.Mardi Harowitz (2007) suggest the fact that the results of therapy may be attenuation of symptoms, and revenge fantasies are deep-rooted, there is an important need for informing the patients that revenge fantasies are likely to return, and are frequently generated by things as simple as seeing a movie, being hurt, or entering an irritated mood as a result of fatigue. Mardi Harowitz (2007) go on to explain that the professional should help the patient plan a comeback, which can engage in reviewing a pre-established set of ideas, overall they express that their goal is to help the patient gain a sense of restored control, self-esteem, and self-coherence without resorting to the strong-me property of a revenge fantasy.Taking into account the apparent lack of topic specific resources that provide general information on the influences of fantasy in the general public, and the gaps that seem wide open between studies in fantasy, it seems fair to say that the beginning would be a good place to start. As a result the current study bequeath seek to investigate attitudes of the general public toward fantasies, looking to find out what they think fantasies might be and to what extent they think it is normal for people to have them. It go forth be hypothesised that most people go away believe that a fantasy is a mere thought of imagination detached from reality to satisfy emotional desires without logical or moral constraints and likewise most people will agree that it is normal to have fantasies. It is expected that more people will agree, than disagree, that it is ok and can be accepted as normal for people to have homicidal fantasies.MethodDesignA between-participants point biserial correlation will be used to canvass the data. The independent variables will be the self report personality inventory (IPIP-NEO) and the attitude measuring questions and the dependent variable will be participants score on the IPIP-NEO and the attitude score. Variables such as gender, age, marital status, housing tenure, region s, employment status, income bracket and criminal convictions will also be considered in relation to participant response to both independent variables.ParticipantsAccording to G Power participant number should be 191, however, for an equal balance, it will be at least speed of light males and 100 females. The male and female participants will be ages of or between 21 and 65, and split between four regions (Glasgow, Paisley, Edinburgh Dundee).ApparatusParticipant information sheets (PIS) and consent forms will be given along with questionnaires that will be used to measure psychopathic personality traits (IPIP-NEO) and attitudes on aggressive revenge fantasies. Each participant will be given the same questionnaire to complete. The statistical analysis programme SPSS will be used to analyse and correlate the data.ProcedureEach participant will be given a brief introduction of the study and asked if they are willing to take part, if they are willing then they will be asked to cautio usly read the PIS, sign the consent form, which will be detached from the questionnaire as they will be anonymous, and complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of a self-report personality inventory, the International Personality degree Pool NEO (IPIP-NEO) developed by Witt, Donnellan Blonigen (2009), of which permission for use was granted by Edward A. Witt.This 40 item inventory will measure the psychopathic personality traits of fearless dominance (20 items) and Impulsive Antisociality (20 items) to assess how high or low participants score in comparison with each other. A four-option multiple response (False, in general False, Mostly True, True) format and a Likert-type scale will be used (False = 1, Mostly False = 2, Mostly True = 3, True = 4) to measure the data. In exception, the 1st, 4th, 9th, 14th, 15th,16th and seventeenth questions of Fearless Dominance will be measured in reverse scale. The second part of the questionnaire consists of 10 questions regar ding attitudes toward people having revenge fantasies. Again, a four-option multiple response (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree) format and a Likert-type scale will be used (strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, agree = 3, strongly agree = 4) to measure the data.ReferenceBaumeister, R. F. (1990). felo-de-se as Escape from Self. Psychological Review, 97, 90-113.Egan, V. Campbell, V. (2009) Sensational Interests, Sustaining Fantasies and Personality Predict Physical Aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 464-469Gellerman, D. M. Suddath, R. (2005). Violent Fantasy, Dangerousness, and the Duty to Warn and Protect. Journal of the American honorary society of Psychiatric Law, 33, 484-495.Greenwald, D. F. Harder, D. W. (1994). Sustaining Fantasies and Psychopathology in a Normal Sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 705-708.Greenwald, D. F. Harder, D. W. (1995). Sustaining Fantasies, Daydreams, and Psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 51, 719-726.Greenwald, D. F. Harder, D. W. (1997). Fantasies, Coping Behaviour, and Psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 91-97.Harder, D. W. Zelin, M. L. (1984). Sustaining Fantasies and Self-Concept Among College Students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 743-748Mardi, J. Harowitz, M. D. (2007). reasonableness and Ameliorating Revenge Fantasies in Psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 24-27.Selby, E. A., Anestis, M. D. Joiner Jr, T. E. (2007). Daydreaming About Death Violent Daydreaming as a Form of Emotion Dysregulation in Suicidality. Behavior Modification, 31, 867-879.Singer, J. L. Antrobus, J. S. (1972). Daydreaming, Imaginal Processes and Personality A Normative Study. In P. W. Sheehan (Ed.). The function and nature of imagery. (pp. 175-202). New York Academic Press.Witt, E. A., Donnellan, M. B. Blonigen, D. M. (2009). Using Existing Self-Report Inventories to Measure the Psychopathic Personality property of Fearless Dominance and Imp ulsive Antisociality. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 1006-1016.Zelin, M. L., Bernstein, S. B., Heijn, C., Jampel, R. M., Myerson, P. G., Adler, G., Buie, D. H. Rizzuto, A. M. (1983). The Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire Measurement of Sustaining Functions in Psychiatric Inpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47, 427- 439.

Trace the historical development of physical education Essay Example for Free

Trace the historical maturation of somatogenetic procreation try onTrace the historical learning of tangible preparation and discuss the effects that these developments guard had on your opportunities to develop achievement in your chosen activitiesThe historical development of somatic education has had a significant effect on my opportunities and personal performance. I will be investigating the effect of historical development of physical education by looking at various manages made during the past two centuries, especially in educates and the various forms of physical education lessons which have been employ in the past. In the nineteenth century in that respect were two distinct traditions in education Public Schools and State Elementary Schools.Public schools were for the gentry and were compensation paying. They were usually non-local, residential and were single sex schools. The students played many a(prenominal) games and concentrated on the characterist ic of leadership and teamwork. They would regularly play these games and develop the rules which had recreational values. The facilities were broad(a) due to the fees paid.Physical Education has developed dramatically in public and private schools since. Education in this country started with private schooling for the social elite. Pupils enjoyed lengthy facilities and focused on the character building aims of education, as preparation for responsibilities in modernr life as employers, officers, members of the clergy and so on. Competitive team games developed to action these aims. There was al federal agencys a concentration on edition rather than a physical education emphasis and this is still common today. Competitive fixtures be a recognised feature and the reputation from winning wait ons to distinguish different schools.During the eighteenth and nineteenth century State Elementary schools were for lower class people. They were cease, cramp and had mixed sexes. The type of teaching was associated with military drills and Swedish gymnastic exercise, and was more base on physical training. The lessons low status and there was lots of foreign in grippeence. The students were value for discipline and the training was to get them fit for war. They were more interested in social control values recreational and educational values were learnt later on.This is in addition changed dramatically over the years. State education began after the Forster Education Act 1870 which initiated domineering schooling for all. In the state system physical education is compulsory and is a core subject of the subject Curriculum. The class teacher is usually in charge, though is not usually a specialist. The content of the lessons is usually based on movement and ball skills. Learning by moving and doing is considered essential to the physical, emotional, intellectual and social education of young children. Variety is overly important as concentration span is limi ted and stimulating activities need to be included. In addition to the curriculum, many schools in like manner offer club activities like gymnastics, netball, soccer, country dancing, and so forthAnother major historical development was when a man called Thomas Arnold encouraged moral features of teamwork such as self discipline, loyalty, courage, character building qualities and leaders.By mid nineteenth century headmasters and staff in public schools started to organise sports. This helped with the development of games. There was local variation of games to schools from villages, the students played regularly and in their free time, school rules, skills and boundaries were developed, teams played competitively, the boys organised a self government, codified rules and inter-school fixtures began and there was the development of games elite.Athleticism was the physical endeavour with moral integrity. The cult of athleticism emphasize the physical and social make headways of sport s. Physical benefits were seen to cancel out the effects of inactive life elbow rooms. Sport was seen as therapeutic, invigorating and beneficial. It was a break from work. Sport could take value in a competitive situation which would help the boys to cope with winning and losing in a dignified manner. This in turn developed leadership qualities e.g. beingness captain was a high status office to hold and inspiring to many of the other students. The performance was seen as more important than the result. Athleticism also met middle class values of respectability and order. Values of sportsmanship, leadership and abiding by the rules.There were people who were against the idea of athleticism. They said that it lead to regimentation of boys thoughts and behaviour with death of individuality, and believed that students were finding it more important the their other studies.Old boys brought games from universities with codified rules and philosophy to excel at their sport. This contri buted to technical development and breakd standards. Sports Day was also introduced which gave a chance for old boys, p arnts and governors a chance to relate to exercise.Athleticism brought about an old boys/girls network, sports clubs and governing bodies became significant administrative features, officers in army and navy authoritative on troops, clergy influenced parishioners, teachers went back into schools, employers encouraged games in their workforce and the empire enabled these developments to be spread world wide.oerall it can be seen that athleticism was a benefit in developing physical education and it still carries on in todays sport.Female Education also helped development in physical education. In the late 1800s education for girls was very poor, pretentious and costly. Accomplishment for society was not intellectual development and competitiveness was not socially acceptable for women. Muscles bound was not unsloped for childbearing and was a threat to the normal behaviour. Due to wealth in the 19th century there was more leisure time and the women were more trying headed, had more common sense and groups of middle class women overcame prejudice. The Schools Inquiry Commission 1868 was important, and in 1881, universities recognised the girls fulfilled degree requirements of boys. In 1898 there was the endowed Schools Act where by 80 girls were endowed.And by 1900 there were 36 public schools for girls, and by the 1918 Act gave girls the same education as boys. miss Bergman wrote the Teachers Encyclopaedia which introduced the principal games in girls school hockey, cricket, basketball and lacrosse. She also saw the benefit of tennis but felt students were already reasonable proficient from their social backgrounds. Womens athletics emerged in the in conclusion 1/4 of the nineteenth century. Physical activity developed later. The development was linked to sociological factors. When prejudicial attitudes began to change, girls began to pa rticipate in activities such as tennis, hockey, gymnastics and cricket.Social games like tennis allowed a mixture of sexes. Female participation in physical activity have helped to develop my opportunities to develop performance as tennis was one of the first sports women were allowed to play. The ladies were able to play privately away from the public gaze, and it was a game which helped to remove some of the stereotypes. They could run around congruous increasingly energetic and clothing began to be slightly less limiting. Schools also accepted the game as it was non-contact, had rules and was acceptable to the p atomic number 18nts. The middle classes also ensured its club development and the administrative structures.The lower classes had to wait until there was public provision, so their participation was delayed. Real tennis was similar it was the sport of the noblemen and royalty and in 1536 there were restrictive acts which forbade servants and labourers to play. This hel ped to retain the privileged status of the elite. The game was originally played with the hand but the development of rackets led to this being a more popular way of playing. It was a very sophisticated, exclusive game requiring expensive facilities, equipment and an understanding of the complex rules and social etiquette of the game.The Model Course was a major development of physical education. This demarcation encouraged a policy of drills and physical training, but little recreational value. In 1902 the Model Course was instituted by Colonel Fox of the War Office. The aim was to improve the fittingness of working class for military preparation, increase familiarity with combat and weapons, and improve discipline and obedience amongst the working class. The drills were done in uniform, in military rows with the students obeying commands. The task was, they were teaching adult exercises to children. This model was not taking the needs of physical and mental development into acc ount. There was no educative content and individualism. The teachers were not commensurate and were of a lower status.Due to the problems the Board of Education established syllabus of physical training in 1904, 1909, 1919, 1927 and 1933. These stressed the physical and educative effect of sport. The physical content of the syllabus was influenced by the primary concern for medical and physiological base from which they approached the subject. Therapeutic effect, correction of posture faults, exercises to improve circulatory system were frontmost in the aims. The educational aims were to develop alertness and decision making. The 1919 syllabus had consideration in loss of life in World War 1 and the flu epidemic after. The 1933 syllabus was more do to with the freedom of movement and was more decentralised. There was a recognition of the increasing rights of the working class and development of educational value of group word.Millions died in World War I, and so public schoolmen h ad ideals of service to the country and were desirous about conflict. Following the war there were hopes of a more equal society due to massive loss of life sustained from all levels of power and responsibility of society.After World War II the Butler Education Act 1944 was introduced. This was a major social reform in Britain, it removed special privileges and ensured equality of opportunity to all. There were 146 local education authorities which provided recreational facilities, the leaving school age was 15, education in grammar schools was free and the 11 plus was introduced, new secondary schools were built, there were more bestride forms of P.E. and the 1944 McNair Report gave physical education teachers the same status as other teachers. The rebuilding program after the war helped develop physical education. The facilities became more sophisticated, more physical education teachers were enlisted and there was a movement away from therapeutic and medical values and more emp hasis on heuristic and guidance style of teaching. The movement approach was also introduced. Children used their initiative and learnt by discovery.Other major developments were that team games were giving way to more individual pursuits, travel was presently available to all classes, the motor car enabled mobility fro even the working classes and air travel had become common steer for sport teams which also resulted in an increase in competitions. Television had a major impact on sports, creating interest in new heroes in sports otherwise unknown to millions. National and international standards rose at the expense of school performances. Local authorities were supplying more recreational facilities such as swimming baths, adventure playgrounds etc. The development of National lay opened up the countryside and encouraged outdoor activities. People were more free to choose their leisure pursuits than ever before.The Moving and Growing Programme was also a major development in the history of physical education. There were two publications Ministry of Education 1952 and 1953. The had influences of obstacle training from the army and movement training from centres of dance. There was also circuit training, weight training (progressive resistance training) and there was Outward Bound Schools promoting adventurous activities to develop personalities within natural environment in challenging conditions. This was more of a child centred approach, and as a result of educational thinking physical education teachers were now autonomous with personal control over the physical education syllabus. The activities included agility, playground and more major game skills, dance and movement to music, national dance and swimming. This was more exploratory, creative, individual and fun. Due to this programme many more activities have become available in schools curriculum, and these sports have become more adventurous and our knowledge has increased over the years on these s ports.The National Curriculum attempts to raise standard in education and make schools more accountable for what they teach. Physical Education is compulsory from the ages of 5-16. There are attainment targets and programmes of study. Children are required to demonstrate knowledge, skills and understanding involved in areas of various physical activities. There are four Key Stages. The Physical Education curriculum took place in August 1995 with Sport, Raining the Game. This has been outdated by Curriculum 2000 changed, which brought physical education more into line with other subjects.The advantages of the National Curriculum are that there is a uniformity of experience and the approach is co-ordinated. It gives the teachers guidance and there is a wide range of experience with pupils. However some would disagree and say that there is no allowance for regional variations and that it can limit choice for teachers. They also think that the tradition of schools is lost and that the c ost of facilities and resources is greater. The National Curriculum can help in my performance as it helps me to judge how I am progressing and how I can improve. It gives me goals to work towards to achieve the next highest level.Assessments in physical education are also very common. The have aims and objectives and the achievement of the student is evaluated and progressed. There are several types of assessments longitudinal student profiles, purely quantitative data like fitness tests and generalised comments. Children need to show what they know, what they can do and understand. Written and verbal language is also important, and being able to use all of these in performance situations. The assessment evaluates the whole person and is not just physical. The ability to work in a group, individually and the ability to abide by the rules is also important. These assessments have helped develop my performance as teachers and coaches can give feedback on how to progress and due to m ark schemes etc. they can judge how far I am progressing and what my aims are for the future and how I can improve further.The changes in society and education in the last 20 years have affected school sport i.e. senseless-curricular opportunities, with a reduction in emphasis on the sporting elite. Extra-curricular clubs, open to all, became more acceptable. Although, many teachers continued to focus on competitive sports and extra curricular activities were affected by the teachers strikes in the early 1980s, financial cuts were felt in terms of transport, the local management of schools allowed schools to supplement their funds by sell off school fields, the increasing occur of leisure and employment opportunities from children meant they were less attracted to competing for their school team and the anti competitive lobby became more vocal.Competitive sport helped to develop children in sport. The children taking part would have a natural competitive instinct, and would be mo re motivated to practise. They would also enjoy the sport more and competition can raise self esteem and they can learn how to cope with failure and success. But some people espoused the theory that competition in sport was not good for childrens development, stating the continued feelings of failure can cause stress and anxiety and the need to win can encourage unsporting behaviour.Over the years people have also come to realise that sports can greatly benefit overall fitness including reducing the risk of dying prematurely, reducing the risk of dying from heart disease, reducing the risk of developing diabetes, reducing the risk of developing high blood pressure, helps reduce blood pressure in people who already have high blood pressure, reducing the risk of developing colon cancer, reducing feelings of depression and anxiety, helps control weight, helps build and maintain muscular bones, muscles, and joints, helps older adults become stronger and better able to move about witho ut falling and promotes psychological well-being. Due to realising theses developments the government has produced better sport facilities which can also aide-de-camp in our development of physical education.In conclusion it can be seen that all of these periods in history have contributed to the development of sport. They have increased the amount of opportunities that we have and the facilities have greatly increased. Due to many of the Acts and the National Curriculum we are now free to participate in a much large variety of activities and not only do we involve ourselves in physical activities but we learn the educational side of sport. I think that through the time the physical education system has improved and now we have more freedom to do what we want. I think that it is good to have physical education compulsory to a certain age as it is an attempt to keep children informed of the benefits of health and fitness and can keep the children more lively and enthusiastic about sport.

The links between CFCs Essay Example for Free

The links between CFCs EssayThere have been many methods to try and investigate the chemistry of the atmosphere. Some scientists use monitoring to find come in what is present in the atmosphere and in what concentration. Many of the substances present have characteristic absoroptions in the infra-red and ultra-violet reigons of the spectrum. (1) Eg Ozone absorbss ultra-violet radiation with wavelengths below 360nm. (1) Ozone concentration has to be measured everywhere a period of time, at different heights and lattitudes to make sure that any decreases argon non from natural influences. This can be done from the ground, high-altitude planes and satellites. science laboratory measurements argon used to determine how substances will behave in the stratosphere like how they are affected by solar radiation and the rates of reaction. The rate constants are very important and allows the rate to be calculated for almost any conditions. It is not decorous to know how they react in t he laboratory because, on this modest scale, gases mix quickly by diffusion (1) but in the stratosphere there are much larger distances and known gasses are not perfectly mixed.We would not be able to make full use of these measurements without knowledge of air movements (meteorology). CFCs in the troposphere are extremely unreactive but in the stratosphere there are much higher levels levels of radiation muscle which are needed to break down C-Cl bonds. This energy does not reach the troposphere because it is filtered out by the O2 and O3 molecules present in the stratosphere. Small concentrations of CFC 11 (CCl3F) were disc everyplaceed in rural areas, wel away from any sources,and showed that it was able to diffuse to Antarctica.Such a stable gas would assemble in the atmosphere. Scientists flew into the ozone hole and measured the concentrations of ClO radicals and O3. Figure 4 below (1) shows that the concentration of O3 fell dramatically at the point where the concentration of ClO radicals soared. This was conclusive proof that a catalytic cycle involving Cl radicals must be involved in O3 depletion. Also figure 1 (4) shows a severe depletion in the ozone layer over the Antarctic on October 1, 1999.The rapid depletion of CFCs in the stratosphere is due to the high levels of ultra-violet radiation which leads to the photodissociation of CFC molecules. Eg A CFC 11 molecule would absorb the high energy ultra-violet radiation and fragment to release chlorine radicals CCl3F == CCl2F + Cl. (1) The Cl radical could then abrogate ozone in a catlytic cycle (1) Cl + O3 == ClO + O2 ClO + O == Cl + O2 boilers suit O + O3 == 2O2 (1) The chlorine atoms are not used up in these reactions, they are homogeneous catalysts.(4) The raction rate is fast and one chlorine molecule could destroy thousands of ozone molecules. The oxygen free radicals, O in the second equation, are formed continuosly in the stratosphere. Ozone depletion is most severe over Antartica in the southern spring because of rum weather conditions, the lie disappears for six months. In the winter a vortex of cold air isolates the circulating air mass from the rest of the atmosphere (1), frozen stratospheric clouds form allowing particles nitric acid frozen around the nuclei of sulphuric acid.The clouds provide a surface for the reaction of HCl with ClONO2. This reaction produces Cl2 which breaks down to form Cl radicals when the sun returns. These radicals lead to the destruction of Ozone. Figure 5 below (1) shows how polar stratospheric clouds help Cl radicals to destroy ozone. As the chemistry of chlorine in the sratosphere is better still it is shown that some gasses like NO2 and CH4 can react with ClO radicals and interrupt the catalytic cycle Cl + CH4== HCl + CH3 ClO + NO2 == ClONO2 The chlorine atoms become bound up in the stable germ molcules, HCl and CIONO2.They remain chemically inactive until realeased (3). CFCs have been used so widely for many reasons. It has the essential physical properties for a refigerent, appropriate boiling and freezing points (low enough to evapourate efficiently but high enough to liquefy by compression) (2). Its chemically stable, non toxic and cheap. (2) CFCs and the related HCFCs quickly became the refrigerantschioce for almost all applications. It had a wide drift of uses, see table 2 below(2), and it was better than all previous refigerants. Table 2 (2).Compound Number Bp/ C Major Applications CCl3F CFC11 23 Air conditioners, water chillers, aerosols, coolant CCl2F2 CFC12 -29 Domestic fridges and freezers, car air condtioning, poly(styene) foams Scientists want to use HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) as a replacement for CFCs because they contain fluorine as the only halogen (2). They also do farther less damage to stratospheric ozone because HFCs are broken down in the troposphere by OH radicals so very little reaches the stratosphere also the C-F bond is not broken in the stratosphere.HFCs have no effect on O3 but they contribute to global warming. Also existing equipment will have to be modified or redesigned which could be very expensive.References- 1. Article 1 Do CFCs destroy the ozone layer? , taken from ChemistryReview, March 1993. 2. Article 2 The rise and fall of CFCs, taken from Chemistry Review, kinfolk 1996. 3. Chemical Ideas pg 242 Heinemann 4. http//www. cis. ohio-state. edu/hypertxt/faq/usenet/ozone-depletion/top. html.

Effect of Bicarbonate Supplement on Kidney Function

Effect of Bicarbonate Supplement on Kidney FunctionBicarbonate Supplementation Slows procession of CKD and Improves Nutritional StatusIone de Brito-Ashurst, Mira Varagunam, Martin J. Raftery, and Muhammad M. YaqoobLayAbstractChronic kidney unsoundness (CKD) is the coarse- name damage of the kidney. Symptoms precisely start presenting when the disease is progressing towards the advanced stages. It is a disease of the cured population, and with the UKs ageing population, cases be likely to increase in the near prospective. Metabolic acidosis (MA) is a common complication of CKD and plowing this has been thought to slow down the lessen in kidney function. Bicarbonate appurtenance has previously been used as an experimental interference on rat models to correct the MA except results have been inconclusive. at that place is also a lack of long- frontier ladders investigating the effect on humans. The results showed bicarbonate supplementation was beneficial to kidney functi on and dietal status of forbearings, while causing nominal side effects. More clinical trials need to be performed to consolidate these findings and to look at alternative treatment regimens before being implemented into clinical practice.Background Information and Rationale for Carrying Out the WorkChronic kidney disease (CKD) is the long-term decline in kidney function. It is defined as kidney damage resulting in a GFR 60 mL/min/1.73m2 for more than 3 months, or kidney damage for more than 3 months with evidence of structural or functional abnormalities, with GFR non ineluctably trim (1). In advanced stages it can lead to metabolic acidosis (MA) due to a decreased tubular bicarbonate secretion, which has been known to cause protein catabolism and change magnitude insulin resistance (2), and impaired ammonium excretion (3).The lesser stages of CKD are quite common in communities but ESRD is quite rare in populations. CKD is a disease of the elderly with around 30-40% of the population 75 years having CKD at stages 3-5 (1). It is usually asymptomatic until the later stages of the disease and during ESDR, the only possible life supporting treatments are transplantation or dialysis (4).Obesity is associated with an increased risk of CKD by over 2.5 times (5). With obesity, type 2 diabetes and hypertension all on the rise (6-8) , on that point is likely to be a boom in the number of CKD cases within the next couple of decades. There is clearly a need to address this future burden on the healthcare system.Correction of MA in dialysis patients has shown to slow down protein degradation in a small number of short term clinical trials (9, 10). Studies on rat models have shown inconsistent evidence where MA has been shown to slow down progression of nephritic failure (11). Due to the short term nature of these studies, there has been inadequate evidence on the impact of renal function.There have been very few studies investigating the correction of MA in CK D in humans and also the lack of long term studies of the effect on pre-dialysis patients, which were the main motives for carrying away this study.Approaches to the Question and Key ResultsThe research question elevated was whether bicarbonate supplementation to patients with MA in CKD could slow its progression and improve nutritional status. A single-centre, open-label, randomised, parallel-group study was carried out to investigate this question.The inclusion and ejection criteria were verbalize explicitly. 134 eligible patients were randomly assigned to either routine standard care or spontaneous sodium bicarbonate tablets 600mg TID which was increased as necessary to find bicarbonate 23mmol/L. The treatment assignment procedure was done by an external statistician and involved block stratification, then randomisation carried out within apiece stratum of men, women, diabetics and non-diabetics. This method helped to balance each of the patients covariates and ensured ad equate concealment. As a result, 67 patients were assigned to the control group and 67 patients to the treatment group. To reach a power of 90% which would accommodate an absolute difference of 30% to be detected, 63 patients in each group would have to be studied, but to allow for non-compliance, this was increased to 67. Calculation of statistical power ensured a large enough sample size. The 2 groups had similar baseline characteristics (Table 1) and apart from the bicarbonate supplementation, they were both treat equally.Patients were followed up every 2 months for 2 years for the primary outcome measurements while nutritional assessments were carried out at 0, 6, 12, 18 and 24 months by a single dietician. All patients were able to be analysed with none of the patients being lost to follow up or discontinuing the intervention, however 5 withdrew before receiving the treatment. Intention to treat analysis was performed. The investigators, statisticians and the single dietician were blinded to the initial group assignment as they were directly involved in assessing the outcomes, but since the trial was open-label, it suggests that patients and external clinicians were not.The outcomes were pore on the research question and were measured in a standard way. The primary outcomes were the decline in renal function, the number of patients with rapid progression of renal failure, and the development of ESRD that required dialysis.After 12 months, the rate in decline of CrCl was trim down in the treatment group at 1.88 ml/min per 1.73 m2 (95% CI 0.39 to 4.15 ml/min per 1.73 m2) than the control group at 5.93 ml/min per 1.73 m2 (95% confidence musical interval CI 4.19 to 7.76 ml/min per 1.73 m2) (PSecondary outcomes were measurements of changes in normalized protein nitrogen appearance (nPNA), dietary protein intake (DPI), serum albumin and mid-arm muscle circumference (MAMC) to identify the nutritional status of patients. Results showed an increase in DPI (P L ikely Impact of Research OutcomeThe feature that there was both a slowdown of the decline in kidney function and a reduction in the number of patients progressing to ESRD is clinically beneficial. However, the confidence interval for the treatment group is quite large (0.39 to 4.15 ml/min per 1.73 m2) and the upper limit is close to overlapping with the confidence interval of the control group at the lower limit (4.19 to 7.76 ml/min per 1.73 m2) for the rate in decline of CrCl. Statistically, the treatment may only offer a marginal feeler over the control, but the bicarbonate supplementation clearly does offer some benefit to stage 4 CKD patients. There are also significant nutritional benefits to CKD patients. Poor nutrition leads to protein energy wasting (PEW) and a low serum albumin which increase morbidity and mortality in dialysis patients (12), but this can be easily reduced with bicarbonate supplementation.The patients studied in this trial are not 100% representative of t he population. This trial had to exclude 30 out of 184 potential subjects due to eligibility criteria. The exclusion criteria included morbid obesity, congestive heart failure, chronic sepsis, malignant diseases, cognitive impairment or uncontrolled hypertension so findings will not gain to patients that fall into these categories, however the findings will be important for the majority of patients with CKD. The trial was only a single centre study on patients at the kinglike capital of the United Kingdom Hospital in the East End of London. The demographic in this area of London is likely to vary from demographics in other parts of London and the UK.I think all the outcomes of interest to the patient were considered before the trial. Side effects of worsening hypertension and oedema that required an increase in therapy and grommet diuretics respectively were minimal (Table 3). Blood pressures rose and oedema worsened more in the treatment group but these were not statistically si gnificant (P=0.17 and P=0.5). The single main issue was that 6.5% of subjects experienced a bad taste taking the tablet of the sodium bicarbonate, which was then switched to a powder form.In the long term I think this trial will form the basis of a future change in clinical practice. The change will not be immediate as this is the first RCT on pre-ESRD patients with MA and more clinical trials need to be carried out in this area, with a subsequent imperious review and meta-analysis. Overall, the bicarbonate supplementation does offer an advantage over standard treatment, and the fact that bicarbonate itself is simple and very cheap to source and produce with minimal side effects also works in its favour.Future Work and ConclusionThere are some changes I would make to the trial. The confidence interval for the treatment group is quite large (0.39 to 4.15 ml/min per 1.73 m2) and the upper limit is close to overlapping with the confidence interval of the control group at the lower lim it (4.19 to 7.76 ml/min per 1.73 m2) for the rate in decline of CrCl. So statistically, the treatment may only offer a marginal improvement over the control. In order to achieve a more precise CI, a larger sample size could be used, and a multi-centre trial could be conducted so that the findings can be applied to a wider population. I think the accuracy of the outcomes would also benefit from the use of a placebo and double-blinding.This study focused only on patients in stage 4 CKD. While these patients are likely to experience MA, it may also be beneficial to study the effect on patients in stage 3 CKD. Patients especially in stage 3b CKD (GFR 30-44 mL/min) are at risk of slipping into the stage 4 category and bicarbonate supplementation has potential to act as a preventative treatment.The serum bicarbonate level in the treatment group was maintained at 23 mmol/L or greater. There was no upper limit for the bicarbonate level and considering that the normal range of serum bicarbon ate is 22-28 mmol/L, we can see that the trial looked at the lower end of the reference range. I think a future clinical trial should look at the effect of bicarbonate supplementation on stage 4 CKD patients when serum bicarbonate is controlled within a middle range of 24-26 mmol/L and at the upper end range of 26-28 mmol/L.It is further to see that there have been more RCTs investigating the positive outcomes of bicarbonate supplementation on CKD (13-15), however further investigations still need to be carried out to reach an optimal and definitive treatment plan.References1.Barratt J, Topham PD, Harris KPG. Nephrology. Oxford Oxford University Press 2009.2.Kopple JD, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Mehrotra R. Risks of chronic metabolic acidosis in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2005(95)S21-7.3.Bailey JL. Metabolic acidosis an unrecognized cause of morbidity in the patient with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2005(96)S15-23.4.Smart NA, Dieberg G, Ladhani M, T itus T. Early referral to specialist nephrology services for preventing the progression to endstage kidney disease. 2009.5.MacLaughlin HL, Hall WL, Sanders TA, Macdougall IC. Risk for chronic kidney disease increases with obesity Health Survey for England 2010. frequent Health Nutr2010. p. 1-6.6.Klahr S, Morrissey J. Progression of chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 200341(3 Suppl 1)S3-7.7.Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 201087(1)4-14.8.Guh DP, Zhang W, Bansback N, Amarsi Z, Birmingham CL, Anis AH. The incidence of co-morbidities related to obesity and overweight A taxonomic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 20099(1)88.9.Graham KA, Reaich D, Channon SM, Downie S, Goodship TH. Correction of acidosis in hemodialysis decreases whole-body protein degradation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 19978(4)632-7.10.Williams AJ, Dittmer ID, McArley A, Clarke J. High bicarbonate dialysate in haemodialysis patients effects on acidosis and nutritional status. Nephrol dial Transplant. 199712(12)2633-7.11.Jara A, Felsenfeld AJ, Bover J, Kleeman CR. Chronic metabolic acidosis in azotemic rats on a high-phosphate diet halts the progression of renal disease. Kidney Int. 200058(3)1023-32.12.Lowrie EG, Lew NL. Death risk in hemodialysis patients the predictive shelter of commonly measured variables and an evaluation of death rate differences between facilities. Am J Kidney Dis. 199015(5)458-82.13.Kovesdy CP. Metabolic acidosis and kidney disease does bicarbonate therapy slow the progression of CKD? 2012.14.Abramowitz MK, Melamed ML, Bauer C, Raff AC, Hostetter TH. Effects of oral sodium bicarbonate in patients with CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 20138(5)714-20.15.Gaggl M, Cejka D, Plischke M, Heinze G, Fraunschiel M, Schmidt A, et al. Effect of oral sodium bicarbonate supplementation on progression of chronic kidney disease in patients with chronic metabolic acidosis study protocol for a rand omized controlled trial (SoBic-Study). Trials. 201314196.

Media Essays Media Representations Public

Media Essays Media Representations PublicMedia Representations PublicAbstractThe purpose of the study is to canvass how noetic badlyness and execration is currently represented in the UK media to what extent, if any representations fuck off changed over the past decade. Furthermore, the study will adopt the theory of complaisant representations, given the theorys useful theoretical perspective for the investigation of media representations. The study will be qualitative in temper, comprising of content analysis of UK tabloid and broadsheet newspaper articles.Content analysis is considered to be atomic number 53 of the classical procedures for analysing textual material (Flick 1998192), and is the only when method for the analysis of textual material at heart the cordial sciences (Bauer (2000). Also, the study will try and discover whether media representations differed considerably in accordance with the type of newspaper and the political orientation of a particular new spaper. inventionPrevious research by the Department of Health found that media representations of kind illness have a negative effect on existence information (Rose, 1998). A nonher study by the Glasgow University media group, confirmed the article of belief that raft who saw a strong link between psychical illness and violence, derived their beliefs largely from the media (Philo, 1993).Although the race between the media and public attitudes be complicated, there is however evidence supporting the view that details of mental illness promote and reinforce negative public perceptions (Cutcliffe Hannigan, 2001).Negative representations and the effect that the media has had when dealing with mental illness according to Cutcliffe Hannigan, (2001) makes the point that supervision registers, supervised discharge and the fall outance of a oecumenicly more imperious mental health policy framework in the 1990s emerged, in part at least, as a gist of media-fuelled moral panic. This was as a result of the berthful media coverage of mental health issues relating to the death of Jonathan Zito at a London underground station and the horrific death of Ben Silcock by a lion at London zoo (Cutcliffe Hannigan, 2001).Meanwhile, according to (Cutcliffe Hannigan, 2001) Despite the recent European Convention for Human Rights Act coming into force in October 2000, some developments in British mental health trade appear to be moving away from the position that upholds, wherever possible, the privates personal freedom as sacrosanct, towards a position more concerned with minimizing risk to others. This development is evident in the policies and commandments that have been introduced by the Labour giving medication since their alternative in 1997 (Cutcliffe Hannigan, 2001).Over the past 30 years a substantial amount of research has been conducted to de terminaline the effect of the media on the publics belief system. If public perception of mental illness is base d on negative and false images perpetuated by the media, there is a danger that government responses to systems and people in the mental health field will besides be based on these false realities, rather than on the true motivations and issues of people detriment from mental illness (Cutcliffe Hannigan, 2001 Rose, 1998).Media Representations of Mental Illness Promote False and Negative Images and StereotypesAccording to Edney, (2004) The media play an influential role in shaping peoples attitudes ab out the world they live in and about the individuals who inhabit the world with them. Stories about or references to people with mental health issues are rarely out of the headlines in news stories, yet research indicates that media portrayals of mental illness are lots both false and negative.Negative Images and Stereotypes in News MediaFurthermore, Edney, (2004) a 1993 Glasgow University study that conducted a content analysis of 562 newspaper items finishing representations of mental health and illness identified at heart local and national media over the course of one month. The study concluded that 62% of those stories focussed on violence towards others in relation to a person with mental illness. Stories that garner the close to media attention appear to be those that make a link between mental illness, crime, and violence.Violence and Criminality in News MediaMeanwhile, Edney, (2004) nearly two-thirds of all news stories examined involving those with psychiatric diagnoses could be classified as crime news. Yet, when news on the whole was examined, only 10% of stories were crime news, with the other 90% of stories revolving around issues unrelated to crime or violence, such as politics, entertainment and health. Thus it is non that news overall is dominated by stories about crime, but rather that news stories featuring people with mental health problems are overwhelmingly given this specific and negative focus.Negative Media Portrayals and public s Negative AttitudesHowever, according to Edney, (2004) The few acts of violence connected by people with mental illness are generally directed at family members, not strangers. Media depictions of persons with mental illness attacking a stranger act upon public opinion. The saliency of such high-profile crimes, despite their infrequency, makes it appear as though violent crimes committed by individuals with a psychiatric diagnosis are common, and that the general public has reason to fear people with mental illness.Furthermore, Edney, (2004) the medias representation of people with mental illness as violent, dangerous, and unpredictable has resulted in the mentally ill seeing societal scorn and discrimination. However, mistaken and negative depictions perpetrate the publics damning image of people with mental illness and bear continued intolerance oppression. Such erroneous and negative associations are woven so thoroughly into the fabric of the public consciousness that sensat ionalism need no longer occur for the public to equate mental illness with dangerousness.Meanwhile, according to Anderson, (2003), Media representations of mental illness can have a significant effect on public images of people who experience mental health problems. The implications for people living in the community are considerable, particularly when the media depict people suffering from a mental illness as macrocosm dangerous and violent.Throughout the 1990s, Anderson, (2003), the media increased attention on issues surrounding governmental community care legislation and the discharge of people from institutional care. This resulted in a stream of news cover ups on homicides involving a person known to be suffering from a mental illness. Furthermore, Anderson, (2003) says that Newspapers in the UK have been one of the most powerful forms of media portraying such incidents. The case of Stephen Laudat, a person known to be suffering from schizophrenia, and who was convicted of sidesplitting Bryan Bennett, is identified as the Killer who should not have gone to jail in an article attempting to illustrate the inadequacies of community care provision.Another report by Anderson, (2003) confronts the reader with Mental patient Kills mother after quitting hospital, which tells the tale of Gilbert Steckel, who was found to have killed a teacher and her two daughters concisely after being discharged from a psychiatric hospital.These events, along with the cases of Christopher Clunis and Jonathan Newby, show the failings of health policies and the health service (Anderson. 2003). An article in the Independent announce NHS accused over mentally ill killers (Anderson, 2003).Furthermore, according to Anderson, (2003), During the last decade a number of studies and analytical papers attempted to demonstrate that negative reports in the press have contributed to the formation of negative public attitudes towards the mentally ill. Broadsheet and tabloid newspapers ma de a significant link between mental ill health, criminality and violence. Such stories were often given more exposure than positive articles.Social Representations TheoryGiven the amount of work carried out using social representation theory, I will concentrate on the aspects of the theory that are useful for media analysis. Social Representation theory renders a framework for the understanding of common-sense thinking, and does not privilege one particular form of research methodology, thus reducing the possibility of bias or error.For example, social representations that emerge as a result of content analysis of media texts do not change as a result of being investigated, albeit representations rely on the interpretation of the researcher, and therefore whitethorn contain a degree of bias. In contrast, information gathered from individuals may be open to change, since individuals may behave differently once they are aware of the nature of the investigation (Farr, 1993). Social R epresentations theory also guides methodology as well as being theoretical and in this see to it any researcher on the job(p) with social representations need to be aware of their own bias.Social representations theory was developed by Moscovici who defined social representations as asystem of value , ideas and practices with a twofold function first to establish an order which will enable individuals to orient themselves in their material and social world and to master it and second to enable communication to take place among the members of a community by providing them with a code for social exchange and a code for running and classifying uniquely the various aspects of their world and their individual and group history (Moscovici 1973 viii)Therefore, social representations are a system of organised structures of meanings which is expressed through the medium of practice and talk. It provides a person with a framework to make sense of their social world, and their understanding is influenced by the meanings associated to them by society.One of the main principles of the theory is the process of making the foreign familiar which allows a person to make sense of events or something new which is unusual or interesting. The theory suggests that individuals develop further ideas as they do not like to live in a society that is strange or unfamiliar.According to Moscovici, (2000) when otherness is thrust upon us in the form of something not kinda as it should be we instinctively reject it, because it threatens the established social order.Newspaper articles showing acts of violence or crime sometimes sees the perpetrator as having a history of mental illness, or psychological put out, which would suggest that mental illness, was the direct cause of violence.So, to what extent can and should the mental health service cherish the public against crime committed by mentally discommodeed offenders.According to Turner, (1996). Section 1 of The mental Health Act ( 1983) defines mental disorder as mental illness, arrested or incomplete development of mind, psychopathic disorder and any other disorder or disability of mind. Furthermore, the Act sets out four types of mental disorder, being severe mental impairment, mental impairment, psychopathic disorder and mental illness (Turner, 1996).Whilst the definitions are in fact legal constructs the type of mental disorder attributed to individuals is dependant on the clinical judgement of doctors and psychiatrists. Thus, detention under the Mental Health Act (1983) depends on the recommendations of two medical professionals, and should the type of mental disorder differ between the two judgements then the detention is invalid.Moreover, the 1983 Act states that individuals should not be deemed to have a mental disorder buy reason only of promiscuity or other immoral conduct, sexual deviancy or dependence on alcohol or drugs. In other words, behaviour that is not perceive to be inwardly social norms is not a mental disorder. Whilst alcohol and drug abuse may cause mental disorder, and thus fall within the scope of the 1983 Act, in isolation they are not mental disorders.Consequently, discussions on the best means of disposal of mentally scattered offenders has been the subject of many government policy initiatives. In relation to DSPD offenders the Home Office/Department of Health (1999) policy proposals for Managing Dangerous People with Severe Personality Disorder identified the need to nourish the public and to provide effective services for individuals suffering from DSPD.Personality Disorder describes a range of different conditions, from those individuals who pose some threat to themselves as well as to their families or friends to individuals who are severely disordered and pose a high risk to the public. This group of individuals is characterised as having DSPD, and it isestimated that over 2000 individuals within England and Wales suffer from this disorder. Current provisions of managing DSPD are problematic, since DSPD sufferers pose new challenges to the mental health services the wish of knowledge about causes of the disorder and the nature of treatment of the disorder.Although individuals with DPSD may also suffer from mental disorder as well as a personality disorder, they are perceived as having different needs from most mentally ill patients and often undermine hospital regimes (Home Office/DOH, 1999). DSPD sufferers are less likely to receive consistent and long term treatment for their disorder, often treatment being a result of crisis intervention.Furthermore, involuntary admission to hospital for treatment of a psychopathic disorder is conditional on the basis that the individual will benefit from the treatment in hospital or prevent deterioration. In the case of DSPD sufferers, psychiatrists are less likely to recommend hospitalisation unless they also suffer from mental illness.However, the majority of DSPD sufferers are found wi thin the prison system, where it is argued they pose equally challenging problems for prison staff. Those individuals who are categorised as being disruptive are held in Close Supervision Centres within the prison, whereby they are subject to high take aims of supervision. On the other hand, whilst some individuals pose no commission problems in prison they present a risk to the public on release.Furthermore, estimation of DSPD sufferers in prison by mental health services is not a matter of course, but rather a matter of chance. Some might question that this system is a breach f the duty of care on the part of both the criminal justice and mental health services to such individuals. Whilst the causes and possible interventions of the disorder are unclear it is hard to come on whether consistent and long term treatments have reduced the likelihood of re-offending, and the risk to the public.More resources needs to put in place in order to provide the care required by particular mentally disordered people, thus not assumimng that mentally disordered people are homogenous groups. Therefore, in this regard one would suggest that the mental health services should not only protect the public from the risk posed by DSPD individuals but also should protect the individual sufferers.Nevertheless, the duty of care is not only the responsibility of the mental health services. The Criminal justice system play an important role in themanagement of mentally disordered offenders. Diversion of mentally disordered offenders into psychiatric care can occur prior and during the process of criminal proceedings. Firstly, the police have the power under Section 36 of the Mental Health Act (1983) to take a person, they believe to be behaving in a disturbed look in a public place, to a place of safety, such as hospital for assessment.This power is open to the police even if an offence has not been committed. The treetop prosecution service may also take into account the mental health of an offender when deciding whether a prosecution is in the public interest. The power of the courts range from remanding the the individual in hospital for assessment, imposing a hospital or restriction order or order the transfer of an individual already in prison into hospital care.However, Grounds, (1996) argued that the provisions of the mental health services in relation to mentally disordered individuals are not as climb or comprehensive as is required. Facilities within secure hospitals have been seen to be too custodial and non-therapeutic. As a result the Special Hospitals assistant Authority was established in 1989 to manage the special secure hospitals of Broadmoor, Rampton and ashworth Hospitals (Grounds, 1996).Furthermore, the Butler Committee interim report (1975) recommended increased provision for medium secure beds within regional health authorities. However, Grounds, (1996) argued that the target proposed by the Glancy committee of 1, 000 beds had not be en met. According to the Department of Health and Home Office (1991) the number of secure in regional Secure units on 31 January 1991 was 597 (Grounds, 1996).In addition, the provision for secure wards providing intensive care was consistent in some areas minimal, and 1community based forensic psychiatry services were also poorly developed (Grounds, 1996289). One of the principles of the Reed committee report (1990) was that all mentally disordered offenders who required care and treatment should receive it from the health and social services rather than the criminal justice system. In practice, this is not the case since the Courts can only issue Hospital orders if a hospital is volition to admit the patient.Thus, despite the fact that the Courts can impose hospital orders in the disposal of mentally disordered offenders whom they believe require treatment, the actual numbers issued are low in comparison to the number of mentally disordered offenders remanded in custody for assess ment (Grounds, 1996).The report suggested that in planning services for the disposal of mentally disordered offenders care should be based on the following criteria wherever possible community based rather than institutionally based care the level of security should be in line with the level of danger the individual poses to both himself and others the type of care should maximise the rehabilitation of offenders, and assist individual in sustaining amn independent life and the location of treatment should wherever possible be as close to the individuals own home and family.Although the Government egg white Paper, The Health of the Nation, (1992) set a health target for the effective service provision for mentally disordered offenders the resource provision is not expected to be high.Another problem is that of risk assessment. Risk is a probabilistic quantiative notion, since it predicts the probability of specified harm in a specified time period. Risk assessment can be both false positives, where an event will occur but does not occur or false negatives, namely that a anticipation is made that an event will not occur but it does.The notion of dangerousness is in itself an an imprecise concept, one that is based on subjective judgement. Dangerousness is not a pathological attribute but depends on both the issue of context as well as individual characteristics. For example an individual who is characterised as being pathalogicallly jealous would not be a danger to the general public, but would pose a risk to a partner.The evidence highlights the fact that provisions within the mental health services of dealing with individuals who pose a high risk to the public are lacking. The detention of DSPD individuals in prisons without consistent and lonf=g term treatment plans is not only detrimental to the individual concerned but also increases the risk of re-offending as well as increasing possible risks to the public.Moreover, lack of adequate treatments and suppor t systems for individuals increases public perceptions of the failure of the Community Care policy. Furthermore, whilst it is clear that some individuals pose a threat to the public as well as themselves, some might argue that the process of risk assessment needs to be rigorous.A greater understanding of the needs of DSPD individuals across both the mental health services and criminal justice services is urgently required hence the need for the agencies involved with mentally disordered people to collaborate. Furthermore, provided there are adequate provisions available the majority of individuals may not pose any real threat to public safety, and the belief that all mentally disordered individuals pose a threat to the public is grossly exaggerated.